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Ibn Arabi

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Not to be confused with Abu Bakr ibn al-Arabi.
Ash-Shaykh al-Akbar
Muḥyī ad-Dīn
Ibn ʿArabī
ابن عربي
Born28 July 1165
Murcia, Taifa of Murcia
(now Murcia, Region of Murcia, Spain)
Died16 November 1240(1240-11-16) (aged 75)
Ṣāliḥiyya, Damascus, Ayyubid Sultanate
EraMedieval philosophy
RegionMiddle Eastern philosophy
SchoolFounder of Akbarism
Main interests
Arabic name
Personal (Ism)Muḥammad
Patronymic (Nasab)ibn ʿAlī ibn Muḥammad ibn ʿArabī
Teknonymic (Kunya)Abū ʿAbd Allāh
Epithet (Laqab)Ibn ʿArabī
Toponymic (Nisba)al-Ḥātimī aṭ-Ṭāʾī
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Ibn ʿArabī (Arabic: ابن عربي, ALA-LC: Ibn ʻArabī‎; full name: أبو عبد الله محـمـد بن عربي الطائي الحاتمي, Abū ʻAbd Allāh Muḥammad ibn ʻArabī al-Ṭāʼī al-Ḥātimī; 1165–1240)[1] was an Andalusi Arab scholar, Sufi mystic, poet, and philosopher, extremely influential within Islamic thought. Out of the 850 works attributed to him, some 700 are authentic while over 400 are still extant. His cosmological teachings became the dominant worldview in many parts of the Muslim world.[2]

His traditional titular is Muḥyiddīn (Arabic: محيي الدين; The Reviver of Religion).[3][4] After he died, and specifically among practitioners of Sufism, he was renowned by the honorific title Shaykh al-Akbar (Arabic: الشيخ الأكبر).[5] This, in turn, was the name from which the "Akbarian" school of Sufism derived its name, making him known as Doctor Maximus (The Greatest Teacher) in medieval Europe.[6] Ibn ʿArabī is considered a saint by some scholars and Muslim communities.[7][8]

Ibn 'Arabi is known for being the first person to explicitly delineate the concept of "wahdat al-wujud" ("Unity of Being"), a monist doctrine which claimed that all things in the universe are manifestations of a singular "reality". Ibn 'Arabi equated this "reality" with the entity he described as "the Absolute Being" ("al-wujud al-mutlaq").

Early life

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Ibn ʿArabī was born in Murcia, Al-Andalus on the 17th of Ramaḍān 560 AH (28 July 1165 AD),[1] or other sources suggested 27th of Ramaḍān 560 AH (6 August 1165 AD).[9] His first name is Muhammad,[5] but later called 'Abū 'Abdullāh (mean: the father of Abdullāh)—according to classical Arabic tradition—after he had a son. In some of his works, Ibn ‘Arabî referred to himself with fuller versions of his name as Abû ‘Abdullâh Muhammad ibn ‘Alî ibn al-‘Arabî al-Tâ’î al-Hâtimî,[1][5] where the last three names indicate his noble Arab lineage.[1] Indeed, Hâtim al-Tây’î was well known as a poet of pre-Islamic Arabia[10] from the South Arabian tribe of Tayyi (now Yemen).[11]

Family

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Ibn ʿArabī was of Arab descent.[12] Some sources suggest that he came from a mixed background, whose father was an Arab descended from emigrants to Al-Andalus in the early years of the Arab conquest of Iberia, while his mother was presumably of Berber descent.[13] In his Futūḥāt al-Makkīyah, he writes of a deceased maternal uncle, a prince of Tlemcen who abandoned wealth for an ascetic life after encountering a Sufi mystic.[14] His paternal ancestry came from Yemen and belongs to one of the oldest Arab strains in Andalusia, they having probably migrated during the second wave of the Muslim conquest of the Iberian Peninsula.[15]

His father, ‘Ali ibn Muḥammad, served in the Army of Ibn Mardanīsh, the ruler of Murcia.[1] When Murcia fell to the Almohad Caliphate in 1172, Ibn Mardanīsh did not survive the defeat and was killed in battle, leading to his father pledging allegiance to the Almohad Caliph Abū Ya’qūb Yūsuf I. At that time Ibn ʿArabī was only 7 years old, and his family relocated from Murcia to Seville to serve the new ruler.[16]

Ibn ʿArabī had three wives. He married Maryam, a woman from an influential family,[1] when he was still a young adult and lived in Andalusia. Maryam also shared his aspiration to follow the Sufi path, as quoted by Austin in Sufis of Andalusia:

"My saintly wife, Maryam bint Muhammad binti Abdun, said, ‘I have seen in my sleep someone whom I have never seen in the flesh, but who appears to me in my moments of (spiritual) ecstasy. He ask me whether I was aspiring to the Way, to which I replied that I was, but that I did not know by what means to arrive at it. He then told me that I would come to it through five things: trust, certainty, patience, resolution and veracity.’ Thus she offered her vision to me (for my consideration) and I told her that was indeed the method of the Folk (Sufis). I myself have never seen one with that degree of mystical experience."[17]

When Ibn ʿArabī stayed in Anatolia for several years, according to various Arabic and Persian sources, he married the widow of Majduuddin and took charge of the education of his young son, Sadruddin al-Qunawi.[18] Ibn ʿArabī also mentioned his third wife in his writings, the mother of his son Imāduddin, to whom he bequeathed the first copy of Futūḥāt al-Makkīyah.[19]

Teachers

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Books about Ibn 'Arabi

Ibn 'Arabi studied under many scholars of his time, many of whom were mentioned in the ijaza (permission to teach and transmit) written to al-Muzaffar Baha' al-Din Ghazi[Note 1] (son of al-'Adil I the Ayyubid).[21][22] Among the most prominent were:[23][24][25]

Students

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Among his most eminent students are:[33][34]

First vision

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Seville, where Ibn Arabi spent most of his life and education

Ibn ʿArabī grew up at the ruling court and received military training.[1] As he confessed in al-Futuhat al-Makkiyya, he preferred playing in military camp with his friends rather than reading a book. However, it was when he was a teenager that he experienced his first vision (fanā); and later he wrote of this experience as "the differentiation of the universal reality comprised by that look".[40]

His father, on noticing a change in him, had mentioned this to philosopher and judge, Ibn Rushd (Averroes),[40] who asked to meet Ibn Arabi. Ibn Arabi said that from this first meeting, he had learned to perceive a distinction between formal knowledge of rational thought and the unveiling insights into the nature of things. He then adopted Sufism and dedicated his life to the spiritual path.[40]

Pilgrimage to Mecca

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Ibn Arabi left Andalusia for the first time at age 28 and arrived at Tunis in 1193.[41] After a year in Tunisia, he returned to Andalusia in 1194. His father died soon after Ibn Arabi arrived at Seville. When his mother died some months later he left Andalusia for the second time and travelled with his two sisters[42] to Fez, Morocco in 1195.[43] He returned to Córdoba, Andalusia in 1198, and left Andalusia crossing from Gibraltar for the last time in 1200.[44] While there, he received a vision instructing him to journey east. He then visited various places in the Maghreb,[40] including Fez in Morocco, where he accepted spiritual mentorship under Mohammed ibn Qasim al-Tamimi.[45] In 1200 he took leave from one of his most important teachers, Shaykh Abu Ya'qub Yusuf ibn Yakhlaf al-Kumi, then living in the town of Salé.[46] He left Tunisia in 1201 and arrived for the Hajj in 1202.[40] He lived in Mecca for three years, and there began writing his work Futūḥāt al-Makkiyya (الفتوحات المكية), The Meccan Illuminations—only part of which has been translated into English by various scholars such as Eric Winkel.[47]

Journey north

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Medieval list of Ibn Arabi's books.

After spending time in Mecca, he traveled throughout Syria, Palestine, Iraq and Anatolia. In 1204, Ibn Arabi met Shaykh Majduddīn Isḥāq ibn Yūsuf (شيخ مجد الدين إسحاق بن يوسف), a native of Malatya and a man of great standing at the Seljuk court. This time Ibn Arabi was travelling north; first they visited Medina and in 1205 they entered Baghdad. This visit offered him a chance to meet the direct disciples of Shaykh ‘Abd al-Qādir Jīlānī. Ibn Arabi stayed there only for 12 days because he wanted to visit Mosul to see his friend ‘Alī ibn ‘Abdallāh ibn Jāmi’, a disciple of the mystic Qaḍīb al-Bān (471-573 AH/1079-1177 AD; قضيب البان).[48] There he spent the month of Ramaḍan and composed Tanazzulāt al-Mawṣiliyya (تنزلات الموصلية), Kitāb al-Jalāl wa’l-Jamāl (كتاب الجلال والجمال, "The Book of Majesty and Beauty") and Kunh mā lā Budda lil-MurīdMinhu.[49]

Return south

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In the year 1206, Ibn Arabi visited Jerusalem, Mecca and Egypt. It was the first time that he had passed through Syria, visiting Aleppo and Damascus.

Later in 1207 he returned to Mecca where he continued to study and write, spending his time with his friend Abū Shujā bin Rustem and family, including Niẓām.[49]

The next four to five years of Ibn Arabi's life were spent in these lands and he also kept travelling and holding the reading sessions of his works in his own presence.[50][full citation needed]

Final years

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Opening pages of the Konya manuscript of the Meccan Revelations, handwritten by Ibn Arabi.
Ibn Arabi's tomb in Damascus

After leaving Andalusia for the last time at the age of 33 (1198 AD)[51] and wandering in the Islamic world for about 25 years, at the age of 58 (1223 AD) Ibn Arabi chose Damascus as his final home and dedicated his life for teaching and writing.[52] In this city, he composed the Fuṣūṣ al-Ḥikam in 1229[11] and finalized two manuscripts of Futūḥāt al-Makkiyya in 1231 and 1238.[53]

Death

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Ibn Arabi died on 22 Rabī‘ al-Thānī 638 AH (16 November 1240) at the age of 75. He was buried in the Banu Zaki cemetery, family cemetery of the nobles of Damascus, on Qasiyun Hill, Salihiyya, Damascus.[54]

Legacy

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After his death, Ibn Arabi's teachings quickly spread throughout the Islamic world. His writings were not limited to Muslim elites, but made their way into other ranks of society through the widespread reach of the Sufi orders. Arabi's work also popularly spread through works in Persian, Turkish, and Urdu. Many popular poets were trained in the Sufi orders and were inspired by Arabi's concepts.[55]

Others scholars in his time like al-Munawi, Ibn 'Imad al-Hanbali and al-Fayruzabadi all praised Ibn Arabi as "A righteous friend of Allah and faithful scholar of knowledge", "the absolute mujtahid (independent thinker) without doubt" and "the imam of the people of shari'a both in knowledge and in legacy, the educator of the people of the way in practice and in knowledge, and the shaykh of the shaykhs of the people of truth though spiritual experience ("dhawq") and understanding".[56]

Islamic law

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Although Ibn Arabi stated on more than one occasion that he did not blindly follow any one of the schools of Islamic jurisprudence, he was responsible for copying and preserving books of the Zahirite or literalist school, to which there is fierce debate over his adherence.[57][58] Ignaz Goldziher held that Ibn Arabi did in fact belong to the Zahirite or Hanbali school of Islamic jurisprudence.[59] Scholars Addas, Chodkiewizc, Gril, Winkel and Al-Gorab attribute to Ibn ʿArabī non-madhhabism, which Hamza Dudgeon claims is mistaken.[60][61]

On an extant manuscript of Ibn Ḥazm, as transmitted by Ibn ʿArabī, Ibn ʿArabī gives an introduction to the work where he describes a vision he had:

“I saw myself in the village of Sharaf near Siville; there I saw a plain on which rose an elevation. On this elevation the Prophet stood, and a man whom I did not know, approached him; they embraced each other so violently that they seemed to interpenetrate and become one person. Great brightness concealed them from the eyes of the people. ‘I would like to know,’ I thought, ‘who is this strange man.’ Then I heard some one say: ‘This is the traditionalist ʿAlī Ibn Ḥazm.’ I had never heard Ibn Ḥazm’s name before. One of my shaykhs, whom I questioned, informed me that this man is an authority in the field of science of Hadeeth.”

— Goldziher, The Ẓāhirīs: Their Doctrine and Their History (1971)

Goldziher says, "The period between the sixth (hijri) and the seventh century seems also to have been the prime of the Ẓāhirite school in Andalusia."[62]

Ibn Arabi did delve into specific details at times, and was known for his view that religiously binding consensus could only serve as a source of sacred law if it was the consensus of the first generation of Muslims who had witnessed revelation directly.[63]

Ibn Arabi also expounded on Sufi allegories of the Sharia, building upon previous work by Al-Ghazali and al-Hakim al-Tirmidhi.[64]

Theoretical mysticism

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Ibn Arabi is counted as the founder of the great schools of mystical thought in Islamic history. The milieu he had lived in had a spiritual atmosphere of mystical and esoteric experiences. Many mystical currents and movements were prevalent in Islamic Andalusia. Some, such as those of Ibn Barrajan, Ibn Arif and Ibn Qasi, gave a dynamism to mysticism. The social and spiritual atmosphere of the Islamic East – such as Iran, Syria and Iraq – also had affected these milieu. Among these conditions are schools such as Avicennism, Suhrawardi and Illuminationism.

In his adolescent and youth period, there were many mystical currents in his production. He referred to nearly seventy teachers in one of his works.[65][page needed]

Knowledge

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Ibn Arabi believed in three kinds of knowledge. The first is rational knowledge, the conclusion of theoretical reason, which could be true and/or false.[66] The second kind of knowledge is delight (dhawq), which is not acquired by rational reflection. In other words it is impossible to bring them into any argument or proofs for reason. The knowledge of love, pleasure or sexual intercourse are samples for second knowledge. The third knowledge is mysterious knowledge, which is beyond the boundaries of reason. This knowledge, which Ibn Arabi also called divine knowledge, is dedicated to divine prophets and his disciples. He believed that true knowledge, namely knowledge of something in itself, belonged only to God and that every definition of knowledge is useless. Knowledge has a divine nature. According to him, real Being has eternal consciousness of its reality. This real Being has the One-many nature. In other words, God is named by many names whilst it is one singular reality.

Imagination

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According to William Chittick, little attention has been paid to the importance of imagination in Ibn Arabi. Before Ibn Arabi, imagination counted as one faculty among senses but Ibn Arabi tried to develop it conceptually. He interpreted imagination as follows: all beings are images of real Being and non-being. In other words, all things have two dimensions of being and non being.[67] The universe and all other things counted as imagination which has a middle nature between sheer reality and utter nothing. All things, in fact, are considered as qualities and reflections of one thing in many ways.[68] Iit refers to theory of the unity of existence.

Al-Insān al-kāmil

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The doctrine of perfect man (Al-Insān al-Kāmil) is popularly considered an honorific title attributed to Muhammad having its origins in Islamic mysticism, although the concept's origin is controversial and disputed.[69] Arabi may have first coined this term in referring to Adam as found in his work Fusus al-hikam, explained as an individual who binds himself with the Divine and creation.[70]

Taking an idea already common within Sufi culture, Ibn Arabi applied deep analysis and reflection on the concept of a perfect human and one's pursuit in fulfilling this goal. In developing his explanation of the perfect being, Ibn Arabi first discusses the issue of oneness through the metaphor of the mirror.[71]

In this philosophical metaphor, Ibn Arabi compares an object being reflected in countless mirrors to the relationship between God and his creatures. God's essence is seen in the existent human being, as God is the object and human beings the mirrors. Meaning two things; that since humans are mere reflections of God there can be no distinction or separation between the two and, without God the creatures would be non-existent. When an individual understands that there is no separation between human and God they begin on the path of ultimate oneness. The one who decides to walk in this oneness pursues the true reality and responds to God's longing to be known. The search within for this reality of oneness causes one to be reunited with God, as well as, improve self-consciousness.[71]

The perfect human, through this developed self-consciousness and self-realization, prompts divine self-manifestation. This causes the perfect human to be of both divine and earthly origin. Ibn Arabi metaphorically calls him an Isthmus. Being an Isthmus between heaven and Earth, the perfect human fulfills God's desire to be known. God's presence can be realized through him by others. Ibn Arabi expressed that through self manifestation one acquires divine knowledge, which he called the primordial spirit of Muhammad and all its perfection. Ibn Arabi details that the perfect human is of the cosmos to the divine and conveys the divine spirit to the cosmos.[71]

Ibn Arabi further explained the perfect man concept using at least twenty-two different descriptions and various aspects when considering the Logos.[71] He contemplated the Logos, or "Universal Man", as a mediation between the individual human and the divine essence.[72]

Ibn Arabi believed Muhammad to be the primary perfect man who exemplifies the morality of God.[73] Ibn Arabi regarded the first entity brought into existence was the reality or essence of Muhammad (al-ḥaqīqa al-Muhammadiyya), master of all creatures, and a primary role-model for human beings to emulate. Ibn Arabi believed that God's attributes and names are manifested in this world, with the most complete and perfect display of these divine attributes and names seen in Muhammad. Ibn Arabi believed that one may see God in the mirror of Muhammad. He maintained that Muhammad was the best proof of God and, by knowing Muhammad, one knows God.[74]

Ibn Arabi also described Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and all other prophets and various Anbiya' Allah (Muslim messengers) as perfect men, but never tires of attributing lordship, inspirational source, and highest rank to Muhammad.[74][75] Ibn Arabi compares his own status as a perfect man as being but a single dimension to the comprehensive nature of Muhammad.[75] Ibn 'Arabi makes extraordinary assertions regarding his own spiritual rank, but qualifying this rather audacious correlation by asserting his "inherited" perfection is only a single dimension of the comprehensive perfection of Muhammad.[75]

Reaction

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See also: Tanbih al-Ghabi bi-Tabri'at Ibn 'Arabi

The reaction of Ibn 'Abd as-Salam, a Muslim scholar respected by both Ibn Arabi's supporters and detractors, has been of note due to disputes over whether he himself was a supporter or detractor. He was known by the title of Sultan al-'Ulama, the Sultan of scholars, was a famous mujtahid, Ash'ari theologian, jurist and the leading Shafi'i authority of his generation.[76] As such, the figure of Ibn 'Abd al-Salam was claimed by each faction of the Ibn-'Arabi controversy due to his impeccable record as a staunch champion of the shari'a.[77]

Ibn Taymiyyah's report was based on the authority of two reliable transmitters, Abu Bakr b. Salar and Ibn Daqiq al-'Id. According to it, Ibn 'Abd al-Salam declared Ibn 'Arabi "a master of evil" and "a disgusting man", who "professed the eternity of the world and did not proscribe fornication."[78] This severe verdict, whose authenticity Ibn Taymiyyah considered to be beyond doubt, was pronounced by Ibn 'Abd al-Salam upon his arrival in Egypt in 639/1241- that is, one year after his death.[79] The versions of the story furnished by al-Safadi, a cautious supporter of Ibn 'Arabi, and al-Dhahabi, his bitter critic, and teacher of al-Safadi, are especially helpful in placing Ibn 'Abd al-Salam's censure into a meaningful historical framework. Both al-Safadi and al-Dhahabi insisted that they read the story recorded in Ibn Sayyid al-Nas's own hand. And yet, their versions vary. Both variants describe Ibn Daqiq al-'Id's astonishment at his teacher's sharp critique of the acclaimed wali, which caused him to ask for proof of Ibn 'Arabi's lies. Ibn 'Abd al-Salam obliged by the following reply (in al-Safadi's recension):[80] "He used to deny [the possibility] of marriage between human beings and the jinn, since, according to him, the jinn are subtle spirits, whereas human beings are solid bodies, hence the two cannot unite. Later on, however, he claimed that he had married a woman from the jinnfolk, who stayed with him for a while, then hit him with a camel's bone and injured him. He used to show us the scar on his face which, by that time, had closed."[81] In al-Dhahabi's rendition: "He [Ibn 'Arabi] said: I married a she-jinni, and she blessed me with three children. Then it so happened that I made her angry and she hit me with a bone that caused this scar, whereupon she departed and I have never seen her again since."[82] The authenticity of Ibn 'Abd al-Salam's disparagement of Ibn 'Arabi seems to find support in his "Epistle on the [Saintly] Substitutes and the [Supreme] Succor" (Risala fil-'abdal wal-ghawth)[83]

On the other hand, another narration in praise of Ibn 'Arabi by al-Izz is reported by 'Abd al-Ghaffar al-Qusi, al-Fayruzabadi, al-Qari al-Baghdadi, al-Suyuti, al-Sha'rani, al-Maqqari, Ibn al-'Imad, and some other supporters. Despite minor variations in their accounts, all of them cite the same source: lbn 'Abd al-Salam's unnamed servant or student. In al-Qusi's redaction, Ibn 'Abd al Salam and his servant were passing by Ibn 'Arabi, who instructed his disciples in the Great Umayyad Mosque of Damuscus. Suddenly, the servant recalled that Ibn 'Abd al-Salam had promised to reveal to him the identity of the supreme saint of the epoch, the "Pole of the Age". The question caught Ibn 'Abd al-Salam off guard. He paused hesitantly for a moment, then pointed in the direction of Ibn 'Arabi, saying: "He is the Pole!" "And this in spite of what you have said against him?" asked the servant. Ibn 'Abd al-Salam ignored this remark and simply repeated his reply.[84] In al-Fayruzabadi's version of the story, Ibn 'Abd al-Salam is presented as a secret admirer of his who was fully aware of the latter's exalted status in the Sufi hierarchy. However, as a public figure, Ibn 'Abd al-Salam was careful to conceal his genuine opinion of the controversial Sufi in order to "preserve the outward aspect of the religious law". In so doing, he, according to al-Fayruzabadi, shrewdly avoided an inevitable confrontation with the "jurists," who viewed Ibn 'Arabi as a heretic.[85]

The importance of Ibn 'Abd al-Salam's ambiguous evaluation of Ibn Arabi for the subsequent polemic is further attested by the detailed treatment of this story in al-Fasi's massive biographical dictionary, "The Precious Necklace" (al-'lqd al-thamin). A bitter critic of Ibn 'Arabi's monistic views, al-Fasi rejected the Sufi version of the story as sheer fabrication. Yet, as a scrupulous muhaddith, he tried to justify his position through the methods current in hadith criticism:[86] "I have a strong suspicion that this story was invented by the extremist Sufis who were infatuated with Ibn 'Arabi. Thereupon the story gained wide diffusion until it reached some trustworthy people, who accepted it in good faith .... My suspicion regarding the authenticity of this story has grown stronger because of the unfounded supposition that Ibn 'Abd al-Salam's praise of Ibn 'Arabi had occurred simultaneously with his censure of him. Ibn 'Abd al-Salam's statement that he censured Ibn 'Arabi out of concern for the shari'a inescapably implies that Ibn 'Arabi enjoyed a high rank in the same moment as Ibn 'Abd al-Salam was censuring him. Such a blunder could not have happened to any reliable religious scholar, let alone to someone as knowledgeable and righteous as Ibn 'Abd al-Salam. Anyone who suspects him of this makes a mistake and commits a sin [by holding him responsible for] mutually contradictory statements .... One may try to explain Ibn 'Abd al-Salam's praise of Ibn 'Arabi, if it indeed took place, by the fact that [Ibn 'Abd al-Salam] was hesitating between praise and censure, because at the time he spoke Ibn 'Arabi's state had changed for the better. If so, there is no contradiction in Ibn 'Abd al-Salam's words. Were we to admit that the praise really occurred, it was nevertheless abrogated by Ibn Daqiq al-'Id's report concerning lbn 'Abd al-Salam's [later] condemnation of lbn 'Arabi. For Ibn Daqiq al-'Id could only hear Ibn 'Abd al-Salam in Egypt, that is, a few years after Ibn 'Arabi's death. This cannot be otherwise because he ... was educated at Qus, where he had studied the Maliki madhhab, until he mastered it completely. Only then he came to Cairo to study the Shafi'i madhhab and other sciences under Ibn 'Abd al-Salam's guidance. ... His departure could only take place after 640, by which time Ibn 'Arabi had already been dead. ... Now, Ibn 'Abd al-Salam's praise, as the story itself testifies, occurred when Ibn 'Arabi was still alive. For did he not point to [Ibn 'Arabi], when that individual [the servant] asked him about the Pole or the [greatest] saint of the age?"[87]

Creed

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His best-known book, entitled 'al-Futuhat al-Makkiyya' (The Meccan Victories or Illuminations) which begins with a statement of doctrine (belief) about which al-Safadi (d. 764/1363) said: "I saw (read) that (al-Futuhat al-Makkiyya) from beginning to end. It consists of the doctrine of Abu al-Hasan al-Ash'ari without any difference (deviation) whatsoever."[88][89]

Works

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Page from a Syrian manuscript of Ibn Arabi's six-volume Dīwān.[90]

Some 800 works are attributed to Ibn Arabi, although only some have been authenticated. Recent research suggests that over 100 of his works have survived in manuscript form, although most printed versions have not yet been critically edited and include many errors.[91] A specialist of Ibn 'Arabi, William Chittick, referring to Osman Yahya's definitive bibliography of the Andalusian's works, says that, out of the 850 works attributed to him, some 700 are authentic while over 400 are still extant.[92][page needed]

  • The Meccan Illuminations (Al-Futūḥāt al-Makkiyya), his largest work in 37 volumes originally and published in 4 or 8 volumes in modern times, discussing a wide range of topics from mystical philosophy to Sufi practices and records of his dreams/visions. It totals 560 chapters. In modern editions it amounts to some 15 000 pages.[93]
  • The Ringstones of Wisdom (also translated as The Bezels of Wisdom), or Fusus al-Hikam. Composed during the later period of Ibn 'Arabi's life, the work is sometimes considered his most important and can be characterized as a summary of his teachings and mystical beliefs. It deals with the role played by various prophets in divine revelation.[94][95][96] The attribution of this work (Fusus al-Hikam) to Ibn Arabi is debated and in at least one source[97] is described as a forgery and false attribution to him reasoning that there are 74 books in total attributed to Sheikh Ibn Arabi of which 56 have been mentioned in "Al Futuhat al-Makkiyya" and the rest mentioned in the other books cited therein. However many other scholars accept the work as genuine.[95][98]
  • The Dīwān, his collection of poetry spanning five volumes, mostly unedited. The printed versions available are based on only one volume of the original work.
  • The Holy Spirit in the Counselling of the Soul (Rūḥ al-quds), a treatise on the soul which includes a summary of his experience from different spiritual masters in the Maghrib. Part of this has been translated as Sufis of Andalusia, reminiscences and spiritual anecdotes about many interesting people whom he met in al-Andalus.
  • Contemplation of the Holy Mysteries (Mashāhid al-Asrār), probably his first major work, consisting of fourteen visions and dialogues with God.
  • Divine Sayings (Mishkāt al-Anwār), an important collection made by Ibn 'Arabī of 101 hadīth qudsī
  • The Book of Annihilation in Contemplation (K. al-Fanā' fi'l-Mushāhada), a short treatise on the meaning of mystical annihilation (fana).
  • Devotional Prayers (Awrād), a widely read collection of fourteen prayers for each day and night of the week.
  • Journey to the Lord of Power (Risālat al-Anwār), a detailed technical manual and roadmap for the "journey without distance".
  • The Book of God's Days (Ayyām al-Sha'n), a work on the nature of time and the different kinds of days experienced by gnostics
  • The Astounding Phoenix regarding the Seal of Saints and the Sun of the West (Arabic: عنقاء مغرب في معرفة ختم الأولياء وشمس المغرب, ALA-LC: ʻAnqāʼ al-Mughrib fī Maʻrifat Khatm al-Awliyāʼ wa-Shams al-Maghrib), a book on the meaning of sainthood and its culmination in Jesus and the Mahdī
  • The Universal Tree and the Four Birds (al-Ittihād al-Kawnī), a poetic book on the Complete Human and the four principles of existence
  • Prayer for Spiritual Elevation and Protection ('al-Dawr al-A'lā), a short prayer which is still widely used in the Muslim world
  • The Interpreter of Desires (Tarjumān al-Ashwāq), a collection of nasībs which, in response to critics, Ibn Arabi republished with a commentary explaining the meaning of the poetic symbols. (1215)
  • Divine Governance of the Human Kingdom (At-Tadbidrat al-ilahiyyah fi islah al-mamlakat al-insaniyyah).
  • The Four Pillars of Spiritual Transformation (Hilyat al-abdāl) a short work on the essentials of the spiritual Path

The Meccan Illuminations (Futūḥāt al-Makkiyya)

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Main article: Meccan Revelations

According to Claude Addas, Ibn Arabi began writing Futūḥāt al-Makkiyya after he arrived in Mecca in 1202.[99] After almost thirty years, the first draft of Futūḥāt was completed in December 1231 (629 AH), and Ibn Arabi bequeathed it to his son.[100] Two years before his death, Ibn ‘Arabī finished a second draft of the Futūḥāt in 1238 (636 AH),[101] of which included a number of additions and deletions as compared with the previous draft, that contains 560 chapters. The second draft, the more widely circulated version, was bequeathed to his disciple, Sadr al-Din al-Qunawi. There are many scholars attempt to translate this book from Arabic into other languages, but there is no complete translation of Futūḥāt al-Makkiyya to this day.

  • Diagram of "Plain of Assembly" (Ard al-Hashr) on the Day of Judgment, from autograph manuscript of Futuhat al-Makkiyya, ca. 1238 (photo: after Futuhat al-Makkiyya, Cairo edition, 1911).
    Diagram of "Plain of Assembly" (Ard al-Hashr) on the Day of Judgment, from autograph manuscript of Futuhat al-Makkiyya, ca. 1238 (photo: after Futuhat al-Makkiyya, Cairo edition, 1911).
  • Diagram of Jannat Futuhat al-Makkiyya, c. 1238 (photo: after Futuhat al-Makkiyya, Cairo edition, 1911).
    Diagram of Jannat Futuhat al-Makkiyya, c. 1238 (photo: after Futuhat al-Makkiyya, Cairo edition, 1911).
  • Diagram showing world, heaven, hell and barzakh Futuhat al-Makkiyya, c. 1238 (photo: after Futuhat al-Makkiyya, Cairo edition, 1911).
    Diagram showing world, heaven, hell and barzakh Futuhat al-Makkiyya, c. 1238 (photo: after Futuhat al-Makkiyya, Cairo edition, 1911).

The Bezels of Wisdom (Fuṣūṣ al-Ḥikam)

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There have been many commentaries on Ibn 'Arabī's Fuṣūṣ al-Ḥikam: Osman Yahya named more than 100 while Michel Chodkiewicz precises that "this list is far from exhaustive."[102] The first one was Kitab al-Fukūk written by Ṣadr al-Dīn al-Qunawī who had studied the book with Ibn 'Arabī; the second by Qunawī's student, Mu'ayyad al-Dīn al-Jandi, which was the first line-by-line commentary; the third by Jandī's student, Dawūd al-Qaysarī, which became very influential in the Persian-speaking world. A recent English translation of Ibn 'Arabī's own summary of the Fuṣūṣ, Naqsh al-Fuṣūṣ (The Imprint or Pattern of the Fusus) as well a commentary on this work by 'Abd al-Raḥmān Jāmī, Naqd al-Nuṣūṣ fī Sharḥ Naqsh al-Fuṣūṣ (1459), by William Chittick was published in Volume 1 of the Journal of the Muhyiddin Ibn 'Arabi Society (1982).[103]

Critical editions and translations of Fuṣūṣ al-Ḥikam

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The Fuṣūṣ was first critically edited in Arabic by 'Afīfī (1946) that become the standard in scholarly works. Later in 2015, Ibn al-Arabi Foundation in Pakistan published the Urdu translation, including the new critical of Arabic edition.[104]

The first English translation was done in partial form by Angela Culme-Seymour[105] from the French translation of Titus Burckhardt as Wisdom of the Prophets (1975),[106] and the first full translation was by Ralph Austin as Bezels of Wisdom (1980).[107] There is also a complete French translation by Charles-Andre Gilis, entitled Le livre des chatons des sagesses (1997). The only major commentary to have been translated into English so far is entitled Ismail Hakki Bursevi's translation and commentary on Fusus al-hikam by Muhyiddin Ibn 'Arabi, translated from Ottoman Turkish by Bulent Rauf in 4 volumes (1985–1991).

In Urdu, the most widespread and authentic translation was made by Shams Ul Mufasireen Bahr-ul-uloom Hazrat (Muhammad Abdul Qadeer Siddiqi Qadri -Hasrat), the former Dean and Professor of Theology of the Osmania University, Hyderabad. It is due to this reason that his translation is in the curriculum of Punjab University. Maulvi Abdul Qadeer Siddiqui has made an interpretive translation and explained the terms and grammar while clarifying the Shaikh's opinions. A new edition of the translation was published in 2014 with brief annotations throughout the book for the benefit of contemporary Urdu reader.[108]

In fiction

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Main article: İbn-i Arabi (fictional character)

In the Turkish television series Diriliş: Ertuğrul, Ibn Arabi was portrayed by Ozman Sirgood.[109] In 2017, Saudi Arabian novelist Mohammed Hasan Alwan won the International Prize for Arabic Fiction for his novel A Small Death, a fictionalized account of Ibn Arabi's life.[110]

Notes

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  1. ^ Ibn 'Arabi presented this ijaza, which enumerates in various manuscript versions from 270 to 290 works, to the Damascene ruler al-Malik al-Muzaffar Baha' al-Din (d. 635/1237) in 632/1234.[20]
  2. ^ The Ibn al-Zaki family (Banu al-Zaki) were hereditary judges of Damascus since the first half of the 6th/12th centuries. Among many members of this clan, Muhammad b. 'Ali b. al-Zaki al-Qurashi (d. 598/1202), the chief qadi of the Shafi'i madhhab.[38]

See also

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References

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Citations

[edit]
  1. ^ a b c d e f g Chittick, William (Summer 2018). "Ibn Arabi". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Stanford: Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved 19 July 2018. Ibn 'Arabî referred to himself with fuller versions of his name, such as Abû 'Abdallâh Muhammad ibn 'Alî ibn al-'Arabî al-Tâ'î al-Hâtimî (the last three names indicating his noble Arab lineage)
  2. ^ Ibrahim Kalin, Salim Ayduz The Oxford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Science, and Technology in Islam, Vol. 1 (Oxford University Press, 2014 ISBN 9780199812578), p. 162
  3. ^ Corbin, Henry (2014). Creative Imagination in the Sufism of Ibn Arabi. Princeton University Press. p. 76. ISBN 9781400853670.
  4. ^ Addas 2019, p. 9.
  5. ^ a b c Hirtenstein, Stephen (16 January 2020). "Names and Titles of Ibn [al-]'Arabī". The Muhyiddin Ibn Arabi Society.
  6. ^ Arabi, Ibn (2020). IBN 'ARABI 》 'Doctor Maximus' & 'The Great Master' SELECTED POEMS (Translation & Introduction by Paul Smith). Independently Published. ISBN 978-10-78-41521-7. Retrieved 28 February 2022.
  7. ^ Chittick 2005, p. 1.
  8. ^ Al-Suyuti, Tanbih al-Ghabi fi Tanzih Ibn ‘Arabi (p. 17-21)
  9. ^ Addas 2019, p. 14.
  10. ^ Addas 2019, p. 12.
  11. ^ a b "Ibn al-ʿArabī | Muslim mystic". Encyclopedia Britannica. 24 July 2024.
  12. ^ Illustrated Dictionary of the Muslim World. Cavendish Square Publishing, LLC. 2011-01-15. p. 105. ISBN 978-0-7614-9966-4.
  13. ^ Hirtenstein, Stephen (1999). The Unlimited Mercifier: The Spiritual Life and Thought of Ibn 'Arabi. Oxford: Anqa Publishing. p. 32. ISBN 978-1883991296. Like many Andalusians, he came of mixed parentage: his father's name indicates an Arab family, which had probably emigrated to Andalusia in the early years of the Arab conquest, while his mother seems to have come from a Berber family...
  14. ^ Hirtenstein, Stephen C. (September 1999). The Unlimited Mercifier: The Spiritual Life and Thought of Ibn 'Arabi. Anqa. p. 252. ISBN 978-1905937387.
  15. ^ Addas 2019, p. 11.
  16. ^ Addas 2019, pp. 14–15.
  17. ^ Austin, R.J.W. (1988). Sufis of Andalusia: The Ruh Al-Quds & Al-Durrat Al-Fakhirah. New Leaf Distributing Company. ISBN 9780904975130.
  18. ^ Addas 2019, pp. 109–110.
  19. ^ Addas 2019, p. 110.
  20. ^ Knysh 1999, p. 295.
  21. ^ a b Gibril Fouad Haddad (21 November 2020). "Muhyiddin ibn 'Arabi". sunnah.org. As-Sunnah Foundation of America. Archived from the original on 21 Oct 2023.
  22. ^ Ibn 'Arabi (2009). 'Asim Ibrahim al-Kayyali (ed.). عنقاء مغرب في ختم الأولياء وشمس المغرب [The Fabulous Gryphon/Phoenix on the Seal of the Saints and the Sun of the West] (in Arabic) (2 ed.). Lebanon: Dar al-Kutub al-'Ilmiyya. pp. 9–14. ISBN 9782745145925 – via Google Books.
  23. ^ Nader Jamil Jum'a 2020, pp. 75–81.
  24. ^ Muhammad Faruq Salih al-Badri 2006, pp. 29–32.
  25. ^ Ibn 'Arabi (2011). Ahmad Shams al-Din (ed.). الفتوحات المكية [The Meccan Revelations] (in Arabic) (3rd ed.). Lebanon: Dar al-Kutub al-'Ilmiyya. pp. 7–11. ISBN 9782745122759 – via Google Books.
  26. ^ Knysh 1999, p. 40.
  27. ^ Faruq 'Abd al-Mu'ti (1993). محيي الدين ابن عربي - حياته، مذهبه، زهده [Muhyi al-Din ibn 'Arabi: His Life, Doctrine, and Asceticism] (in Arabic) (1st ed.). Lebanon: Dar al-Kutub al-'Ilmiyya. p. 26 – via Google Books.
  28. ^ Jamal Bami. "Imam al-Suhayli". mithaqarrabita.ma (in Arabic). Morocco: Muhammadiya Association of Scholars (al-Rabita al-Muhammadiyya lil-'Ulamā'). Archived from the original on 21 Oct 2023. وللإمام السهيلي تلاميذ كثر منهم فرج بن عبد الله الأنصاري الاشبيلي، سمع عن أبي القاسم السُّهيلي بعض مصنفاته كما في كتاب "الذيل والتكملة لكتابي الموصول والصلة" لابن عبد الملك المراكشي. ومنهم أبو القاسم ابن الملجوم الفاسي (ت603هـ)، أخد عن الإمام السهيلي بمالقة، ومنهم محي الدين بن العربي الحاتمي صاحب "الفتوحات المكية" المتوفى بدمشق سنة 638هـ، وقد أخطأ صاحب "شجرة النور الزكية" محمد بن محمد مخلوف بجعله شيخا للسهيلي بينما هو تلميذه على الحقيقة كما عند صاحب "الإعلام بمن حل بمراكش وأغمات من الأعلام" العباس بن إبراهيم السملالي.
  29. ^ Ibrahim Muhammad Hussein al-Wajrah (2022). الخيال عند ابن سينا ومحيي الدين ابن عربي - دراسة تحليلية ومقارنة [Imagination/Fiction according to Ibn Sina and Muhyiddin Ibn 'Arabi: An Analytical and Comparative Study] (in Arabic) (1st ed.). Lebanon: Dar al-Kutub al-'Ilmiyya. pp. 64–65. ISBN 9782745196507 – via Google Books.
  30. ^ Muhammad ibn 'Umar ibn 'Abd al-Jalil al-Qadiri (2009). 'Asim Ibrahim al-Kayyali (ed.). شرح الصلاة الأكبرية للشيخ الأكبر محيي الدين ابن عربي [Sharh al-Salah al-Akbariyya] (in Arabic). Lebanon: Dar al-Kutub al-'Ilmiyya. p. 7. ISBN 9782745161925 – via Google Books.
  31. ^ Ahmad Farid al-Mazidi (2010). شيخ الشيوخ في الأمصار أبو مدين الغوث (in Arabic). Lebanon: Dar al-Kutub al-'Ilmiyya. p. 150. ISBN 9782745168269 – via Google Books.
  32. ^ Hifnawi Ba'li (2018). الرحلات الحجازية المغاربية: المغاربة الأعلام في البلد الحرام (in Arabic). Jordan: Yazouri Group for Publication and Distribution. p. 302. ISBN 9789957791360 – via Google Books. ومن تلامذة الشيخ أبو مدين شعيب: الشيخ الأكبر محي الدين بن عربي الحاتمي الطائي، وأبو عبد الله حماد الصنهاجي القلعي، والشيخ الفقيه أبو عبد الله محمد بن إبراهيم الأنصاري.
  33. ^ Nader Jamil Jum'a 2020, pp. 82–86.
  34. ^ Muhammad Faruq Salih al-Badri 2006, pp. 32–36.
  35. ^ a b 'Abd al-Hafiz Farghali 'Ali al-Qarani (2021). الشيخ الأكبر محيي الدين بن العربي سلطان العارفين [The Greatest Master Muhyi al-Din ibn al-'Arabi the King of Gnostics] (in Arabic). Giza, Egypt: Arab Press Agency (Publishers). p. 211. ISBN 978-977-991-172-4 – via Google Books.
  36. ^ Al-Husaini al-Husaini Ma'addi (2013). موسوعة الصوفية [Encyclopedia of Sufism] (in Arabic) (1st ed.). Cairo, Egypt: Kenouz for Publishing and Distribution. p. 451. ISBN 9796500154978 – via Google Books.
  37. ^ Ibn 'Arabi (2011). Explained by Ahmad Hasan Bassaj (ed.). ديوان ابن عربي [Diwan of Ibn 'Arabi] (in Arabic) (3rd ed.). Lebanon: Dar al-Kutub al-'Ilmiyya. p. 6. ISBN 9782745108012 – via Google Books.
  38. ^ Knysh 1999, p. 289.
  39. ^ Gerald Elmore (1997). "New Evidence on the Early Life of Ibn al-ʿArabī". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 117 (2): 347–349. doi:10.2307/605498. JSTOR 605498.
  40. ^ a b c d e Chittick 2005, p. 5.
  41. ^ Addas 2019, pp. 51–53.
  42. ^ Addas 2019, p. 61.
  43. ^ Addas 2019, p. 64.
  44. ^ Addas 2019, pp. 65–68.
  45. ^ John Renard (18 May 2009). Tales of God's Friends: Islamic Hagiography in Translation. University of California Press. p. 35. ISBN 978-0-520-25896-9. Retrieved 11 February 2012.
  46. ^ Elmore, Gerald T. (1999). Islamic Sainthood in the Fullness of Time: Ibn Al-ʻArabī's Book of the Fabulous Gryphon. Brill. p. 69. ISBN 978-90-04-10991-9.
  47. ^ "The Futuhat Project". The Muhyiddin Ibn Arabi Society. 12 January 2020. Retrieved 2022-12-02.
  48. ^ Testament to Qaḍīb al-Bān's life exists in a manuscript at the University of Baghdad (no. 541).
  49. ^ a b Hirtenstein, Stephen (1999). The Unlimited Mercifier, The Spiritual life and thought of Ibn 'Arabi. Anqa Publishing & White Cloud Press. ISBN 978-0953451326.
  50. ^ Islaahe Nafs ka AAiena e Haq
  51. ^ Addas 2019, p. 68.
  52. ^ Addas 2019, p. 118.
  53. ^ Addas 2019, pp. 3–5.
  54. ^ "Tomb of Ibn al-'Arabi". Qandara: Mediterranean Heritage. Retrieved December 14, 2022.
  55. ^ Chittick 2005, pp. 2–3.
  56. ^ Ibn, Khafif (1999). Correct Islamic Doctrine/Islamic Doctrine. ISCA. ISBN 978-1-930409-01-9.
  57. ^ Mohammed Rustom, Review of Michel Chodkiewicz's An Ocean without Shore
  58. ^ Hamza Dudgeon, "The Counter-Current Movements of Andalusia and Ibn ʿArabī: Should Ibn ʿArabī be considered a Ẓāhirī?" 2018, Journal of the Muhyiddin Ibn 'Arabi Society Vol. 64.
  59. ^ Ignaz Goldziher, The Ẓāhirīs: Their Doctrine and Their History, ed. and trans. by Wolfgang Behn (Leiden: Brill, 1971), 169.
  60. ^ Dudgeon, "The Counter-Current Movements of Andalusia and Ibn ʿArabī: Should Ibn ʿArabī be considered a Ẓāhirī?," 104.
  61. ^ Hamza Dudgeon, "Review of Sufis and Sharīʿa: The Forgotten School of Mercy" in the Journal of Muhyiddin Ibn ‘Arabi Society 74 (2023): .
  62. ^ Goldziher, The Ẓāhirīs, 170-171
  63. ^ Chiragh Ali, The Proposed Political, Legal and Social Reforms. Taken from Modernist Islam 1840-1940: A Sourcebook, pg. 281. Edited by Charles Kurzman. New York City: Oxford University Press, 2002.
  64. ^ Hamza Dudgeon, "The Revival of Sharia’s Allegories," 2019 Journal of the Muhyiddin Ibn 'Arabi Society Vol. 66. https://www.academia.edu/40585698/The_Revival_of_Sharia_s_Allegories
  65. ^ Chittick 2005.
  66. ^ "افزودن به کتابخانه من درباره کتاب نوشتن یادداشت خرید کتاب دربــارهابن عربی، ابو عبدالله". The Great Islamic Encyclopedia, Volume 4. Retrieved 23 May 2021.
  67. ^ Chittick 2005, pp. 106–107.
  68. ^ Chittick, William C. (1994). Imaginal worlds: Ibn al-ʻArabī and the problem of religious diversity. Albany: State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-2249-6.
  69. ^ Chittick, William C. (1995). "EBN AL-ʿARABĪ, MOḤYĪ-al-DĪN Abū ʿAbd-Allāh Moḥammad Ṭāʾī Ḥātemī". In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica. Vol. VII/6: Drugs–Ebn al-Aṯir. London and New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. 664–670. ISBN 978-1-56859-024-0.
  70. ^ Fitzpatrick & Walker 2014, p. 440.
  71. ^ a b c d Little, John T. (January 1987). "Al-Insān Al-Kāmil: The Perfect Man According to Ibn Al-'arabi". The Muslim World. 77 (1): 43–54. doi:10.1111/j.1478-1913.1987.tb02785.x.
  72. ^ Dobie, Robert J. (2010). Logos and Revelation: Ibn 'Arabi, Meister Eckhart, and Mystical Hermeneutics. Washington, D.C.: The Catholic University of America Press. p. 225. ISBN 978-0813216775. For Ibn Arabi, the Logos or "Universal Man" was a mediating link between individual human beings and the divine essence.
  73. ^ Fitzpatrick & Walker 2014, p. 445.
  74. ^ a b Fitzpatrick & Walker 2014, p. 446.
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Sources

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As of this edit, this article uses content from "A Concise biography of Ibn 'Arabi", which is licensed in a way that permits reuse under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, but not under the GFDL. All relevant terms must be followed.

Further reading

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English translations

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Life and work

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  • Addas, Claude, Quest for the Red Sulphur, Islamic Texts Society, Cambridge, 1993. ISBN 0-946621-45-4.
  • Akkach, Samer, Ibn 'Arabî's Cosmogony and the Sufi Concept of Time, in: Constructions of Time in the Late Middle Ages, ed. Carol Poster and Richard Utz. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1997. Pp. 115-42.
  • Titus Burckhardt & Bulent Rauf (translator), Mystical Astrology According to Ibn 'Arabi (The Fons Vitae Titus Burckhardt Series) ISBN 1-887752-43-9
  • Henry Corbin, Alone with the Alone; Creative Imagination in the Sūfism of IbnʿArabī, Bollingen, Princeton 1969, (reissued in 1997 with a new preface by Harold Bloom).
  • Elmore, Gerald T. Ibn Al-'Arabī’s Testament on the Mantle of Initiation (al-Khirqah). Journal of the Muhyiddin Ibn ‘Arabi Society XXVI (1999): 1-33. Print.
  • Elmore, Gerald T. Islamic Sainthood in the Fullness of Time: Ibn Al-‘Arabī's Book of the Fabulous Gryphon. Leiden: Brill, 1999. Print.
  • Hirtenstein, Stephen (1999). The Unlimited Mercifier, The Spiritual life and thought of Ibn 'Arabi. Anqa Publishing & White Cloud Press. ISBN 978-0953451326.
  • Hirtenstein, Stephen, and Jane Clark. Ibn 'Arabi Digital Archive Project Report for 2009 Archived 2015-01-02 at the Wayback Machine Muhyiddin Ibn 'Arabi 1165AD - 1240AD and the Ibn 'Arabi Society. Dec. 2009. Web. 20 Aug. 2010.
  • Torbjörn Säfve, "Var inte rädd" ('Do not be afraid'), ISBN 91-7221-112-1
  • Yahia, Osman. Mu'allafāt Ibn ʻarabī: Tārīkhuhā Wa-Taṣnīfuhā. Cairo: Dār al-Ṣābūnī, 1992. Print.
  • Yousef, Mohamed Haj. Ibn 'Arabi - Time and Cosmology (London, Routledge, 2007) (Culture and Civilization in the Middle East).
  • Yūsuf, Muhammad Haj. Shams Al-Maghrib. Allepo: Dār al-Fuṣṣilat, 2006. Print.
  • Kiliç, M.Erol; Caradaş, Cağfer; Kaya, Mahmut (1999). İBNÜ'l-ARABÎ, Muhyiddin - An article published in Turkish Encyclopedia of Islam (in Turkish). Vol. 20 (Ibn Haldun - Ibnu'l Cezeri). Istanbul: TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi. pp. 493–522. ISBN 978-975-389-447-0.
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